In summary, the training program performed in this study produced distinct training effects in the control group. However, KAS supplementation was

associated with additional improvements in Pmax and maximum muscular torque and performance. Together with the data from training volume, it can be concluded that KAS improves training tolerance and has beneficial effects on physical training. KAS effects on stress-recovery state The state of stress-recovery during and after a training phase can be assessed using the questionnaire RESTQ-sport [28]. In general, the profiles of the RESTQ scores were quite different among the three groups (Figure 5A-D). The term general stress reached its highest level in the control group after the third training week (Figure 5A). Emotional exhaustion (Figure 5C) and a slight increase in somatic complaints (Figure 5B) followed the Seliciclib cost same pattern but with distinct disturbed breaks as a sign of poor recovery (Figure 5D). A decrease in the general stress parameters at the end of the 4th training week and after recovery was associated with a

reduction in training volume (Figure 2). This finding is in agreement with RG-7388 research buy those of Kellmann and Gunther, who concluded that the general stress and somatic complaints were correlated with the duration of intense training [28]. In contrast with the results for the control group, the RESTQ scores for the terms general stress (Figure 5A) and emotional exhaustion (Figure 5C) in the BCKA group did not change significantly and remained at a lower level, but the somatic complaints increased during the training period (Figure 5B). These Immune system data suggest that BCKA supplements can relieve general stress and emotional exhaustion and better preserve the recovery after high-level exercise. With the AKG supplement, the RESTQ profile was comparable to that of the control group, although the training volume was higher in the 3rd and 4th training weeks. Considering the relationship between the amount of training and RESTQ scores in general stress and somatic complaints reported by

Kellmann and Gunther [28], our data suggest that supplementation with AKG helps maintain the level of general stress, somatic complaints and emotional exhaustion during high-intensity training. To the best of our knowledge, there are no previous studies investigating the effects of KAS supplementation on physical training. However, two relevant studies have been reported [8, 22]. In a study of adult rats, De Almeida et al. have shown that exercise increased ammonia levels twofold with respect to the control and significantly increased blood urea levels (17%). Those authors also report that acute supplementation with keto acid-associated amino acids (KAAA) clearly reduced exercise-induced hyperammonemia [8].

It is also due to the vertical growth of ZnO rods and their high surface areas as suggested by Xu et al. [29]. The calculated ratio of the intensity of UV emission to the intensity of green emission, I UV/I Visible, obtained in this work is shown in Figure 3b (inset). As a comparison, the results obtained for the electrodeposition on SL graphene [30] were

also plotted in the same figure. It can be seen that both spectra show a similar tendency. It can be seen that see more the sample grown on ML graphene at a current density of −1.0 mA/cm2 shows the highest value of 1.6 which seems to indicate the optimum current density for this work. The sample grown at a current density of −2.0 mA/cm2 shows the highest green emission compared to the other samples or the lowest I UV/I Visible value, which indicates that there may be more defects induced during the growth such as O vacancies [43]. Ahn et al. reported that the sensitivity of gas sensing

increases linearly with the sample having high green emission intensity or, in other words, with the structure having large defect density [14]. Therefore, it seems to suggest that the sample with large structural defect also has several interesting applications. Growth mechanism To understand the growth mechanism, we have investigated the surface and cross-sectional structures selleck chemical ADP ribosylation factor both

at the initial stage of the growth, i.e., before reaching the ST point, and after 1 h of actual growth. As the procedure of a study at the initial growth, the samples were grown at several growth times, i.e., 10 s (T = 23°C), 1 min (T = 30°C), 5 min (T = 52°C), 10 min (T = 68°C), and 15 min (T = 80°C). The current was fixed at −1.0 mA/cm2. The current was immediately turned off after reaching these growth times, and at the same time, a sample was immediately taken out from the electrolyte and immersed into DI water to remove any residue. Figure 4a shows a FESEM image of bare ML graphene used in this work. It can be seen that the differences in contrast and brightness of the image represent the differences in thicknesses of graphene. The dark color shows the thicker graphene, while the bright color shows the thinner graphene. Figure 4b shows an image after the growth time of 10 s. It can be seen that the surface was covered with a high density of white ZnO cluster-like spots. This indicates that the nucleation of ZnO starts aggressively in a short time after the introduction of current even at a low temperature of 23°C. With the increase of growth time to 1 min (T = 30°C), it can be seen that almost the entire surface was covered with the ZnO thin layer with a rough morphology in different brightness levels, as shown in Figure 4c.

The hybridized FDA was scanned with an Agilent dual-laser DNA microarray scanner G2565AA. Feature extraction and data normalization were conducted with Agilent Feature Extraction software. Relative

expression levels were measured by normalizing the signal intensities of Cy5 to those of Cy3. The mean of four replicate samples was used for each experiment (Fig. 1). Data were expressed as relative values against a house-keeping gene, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). Figure 1 Focused DNA array containing quadruplicate sets of oligonucleotide array sequences for 133 genes. High reproducibility of gene expression is confirmed in corresponding spots of the quadruplicate. Statistical analysis High mRNA expression was defined as above the average value of the 35 RNA samples. The relationship between mRNA expression and GEM efficacy Sepantronium purchase was examined by chi-squared test (Fisher’s exact test). ICG-001 chemical structure Survival data were estimated by the Kaplan-Meier method and were examined by log-rank test. Results Clinical outcome Five of 35 patients who completed two courses of GEM monotherapy showed PR, SD was seen in 19 patients, and progressive disease was seen in 11 patients. Among the 19 SD patients, pretreatment values for tumor markers in two patients were normal. Abnormal levels of tumor markers in seven of 17 SD-patients decreased by 50% or more as compared to pretreatment

values. When GEM efficacy was defined as PR or SD with a 50% or more decrease in tumor markers compared to baseline, 12 patients were classified into the effective group (Table 1). There was a significant difference between the survival periods of the effective and the non-effective groups (Median survival time, 16.6 months vs. 7.8 months, respectively; P = 0.0017) (Fig. 2). Figure 2 Probability of survival for patients with unresectable pancreatic ductal cancer stratified by gemcitabine efficacy. Open circles, GEM-effective group. Closed circles, GEM-non-effective group. There is a significant difference between survival in the two groups. RNA quantity

and quality Mean ± SD amount of total RNA from 35 tumors was 0.7 ± 0.7 μg (range, 0.1 – 3.0 μg). All 35 RNA samples were of sufficient quality (Fig. Fossariinae 3). Figure 3 Representative electropherogram of total RNA extracted from pancreatic cancer obtained by endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy. The ratio of 28S to 18S of ribosomal RNA indicates good quality of total RNA. GEM sensitivity-related gene expression and clinical GEM efficacy Gene expressions as relative values against GAPDH were as follows: hENT-1, 3.88 (mean), 2.77–6.41 (range); hENT-2, 4.04, 2.54–6.68; dCK, 3.90, 2.21–6.79; DCD, 4.61, 3.09–7.60; CDA, 2.71, 0.27–7.89; 5′-NT, 4.30, 1.35–7.23; RRM1, 2.02, 0.41–5.53; RRM2, 0.91, 0.18–3.34. Among GEM sensitivity-related genes, dCK mRNA expression alone predicted GEM efficacy (Table 2).

14 0.90 62.0 3.43 Week 1 5.89 0.90 61.1 3.22 Week 2 5.69 0.89 60.9 3.08 Week 3 5.42 0.87 59.0 2.79 Week 4 5.61 0.88 60.9 3.01 Conclusion In conclusion, we have found that modification of the interface between the inorganic ITO and photoactive layer can improve the performance of inverted solar cells. The modification of ITO leads to 8% improvement over unmodified ITO inverted devices. This interface modification serves multiple functions that affect the photoinduced charge transfer at the interface, which include the reduction the recombination

of charges, passivation of inorganic surface trap states, and improvement of the exciton dissociation efficiency at the polymer/ZnO interface. Moreover, https://www.selleckchem.com/products/Cediranib.html the stability of these modified

devices is slightly better compared with unmodified ones. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Industrial Strategic Technology Development (10045269, Development of Soluble TFT and Pixel Formation Materials/Process Technologies for AMOLED TV) funded by MOTIE/KEIT. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Figure S1: AFM images of ZnO and ZnO:Cs2CO3 layers with different blend ratios. (JPEG 135 KB) Additional file 2: Figure S2: J-V characteristics evolutions of P3HT:PCBM- and P3HT:ICBA-based devices (a) ZnO and PEDOT:PSS-Device A, (b) ZnO:Cs2CO3 and PEDOT:PSS-Device B, (c) ZnO and PEDOT:PSS-Device C, and (d) ZnO:Cs2CO3 and PEDOT:PSS-Device D. (JPEG 63 KB) References 1. Bottiger APL, Jorgensen M, Menzal A, Krebs FC, Andreasen JW: High-throughput HM781-36B cost roll-to-roll X-ray characterization

of polymer solar cell active layers. J Mater Chem 2012, 22:22501–22509. 10.1039/c2jm34596jCrossRef 2. Sondergaard R, Hosel M, Angmo D, Olsen TTL, Krebs FC: Roll-to-roll fabrication of polymer solar Carbohydrate cells. Materials today 2012, 15:36–19. 10.1016/S1369-7021(12)70019-6CrossRef 3. Espinosa N, Dam HF, Tanenbaum DM, Andreasen JW, Jorgensen M, Krebs FC: Roll-to-roll processing of inverted polymer solar cells using hydrated vanadium(V)oxide as a PEDOT:PSS replacement. Materials 2011, 4:169–182. 10.3390/ma4010169CrossRef 4. Krebs FC, Gevorgyan SA, Alstrup J: A roll-to-roll process to flexible polymer solar cells : model studies, manufacture and operational stability studies. J Mater Chem 2009, 19:5442–5452. 10.1039/b823001cCrossRef 5. Susanna G, Salamandra L, Brown TM, Carlo AD, Brunetti F, Reale A: Airbrush spray-coating of polymer bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Sol Energ Mater Sol Cell 2011, 95:1775–1778. 10.1016/j.solmat.2011.01.047CrossRef 6. Patel D, Deshmukh SP: Polymer in sustainable energy. J Minerals Mater Charac Eng 2012, 11:661–666. 7. Alemu D, Wei HY, Ho KC, Chu CW: Highly conductive PEDOT:PSS electrode by simple film treatment with methanol for ITO-free polymer solar cells. Energ Environ Sci 2012, 5:9662–9671. 10.1039/c2ee22595fCrossRef 8.

The numbers on the right indicate the number of amino acids of the predicted protein. As shown in Figure 2, UV-light irradiation increased excision of VPI-2 over 4-fold. In order to investigate this further, we determined the effect of UV-light irradiation on the expression of intV2, vefA and vefB in V. cholerae N16961 (Figure 4). We examined transcript levels of intV2, vefA and vefB in cells grown for 12 h in LB and in cells grown

for 12 h in LB followed UV-light irradiation treatment. We found that all three genes showed negligible levels of transcription under standard optimum growth conditions but after UV-light treatment both intV2 and vefA show a 10-fold and vefB a 5-fold increase in expression levels AZD2281 datasheet (Figure 4). These results indicate that UV-light induces expression of factors potentially involved in VPI-2 excision. Figure 4 Expression of intV2 (VC1758), vefA , and vefB from cultures grown in standard (black bars) or UV-light irradiated cultures (grey bars). The Y-axis represents the expression ratio of the genes relative to the expression of mdh. Unpaired t-test was used in order to infer statistical significance for the differences in gene expression between cultures of V. cholerae N16961 with or

without UV-light treatment. **, p < 0.05; ***, p < 0.005. Error bars indicate standard deviation. Each experiment was performed in triplicate a minimum of three times. IntV2 and VefA are essential for the excision of VPI-2 To determine MG-132 in more detail the role of intV2, vefA and vefB in VPI-2 excision, we created deletion https://www.selleckchem.com/products/AZD8931.html mutations in each gene and measured excision levels of VPI-2 by determining attB levels in cells. In V. cholerae RAM-1, an intV2 mutant, we did not detect any VPI-2 attB products, demonstrating that intV2 is essential for excision as was previously shown (Figure 5) [23]. We complemented RAM-1 with a functional copy of intV2 by transforming

V. cholerae RAM-1 with pIntV2 creating strain SAM-1. In our SAM-1 strain, we found that excision of VPI-2 was restored in addition, attB levels were approximately four-fold higher than wild-type levels which is represented by the dotted broken horizontal line in Figure 5. These data demonstrate that over expressing intV2 ectopically induces excision of VPI-2. In our control experiments, transformation of either wild-type N16961 or RAM-1 with pBAD33 alone (strains SAM-11 and SAM-12 respectively) did not affect attB levels (data not shown). Figure 5 Excision levels of VPI-2 in mutant strains and strains complemented with intV2 (VC1758), and vefA (VC1785). Excision levels of ΔintV2 mutant (RAM-1), ΔintV2 mutant complemented (SAM-1), ΔvefA mutant (SAM-3), ΔvefA mutant complemented (SAM-5), and ΔvefB mutant (SAM-4). Unpaired t-test was used in order to infer statistical significance for the differences in VPI-2 excision between V. cholerae N16961 and test strains. **, p < 0.05; ***, p < 0.005. Error bars indicate standard deviation.

PLoS Pathog 2010,6(8):e1001068.PubMedCrossRef 20. Zheng J, Ho B, Mekalanos JJ: Genetic analysis of anti-amoebae and anti-bacterial activities of the type VI secretion system in Vibrio cholerae . PLoS One 2011,6(8):e23876.PubMedCrossRef 21. MacIntyre DL, Miyata ST, Kitaoka M, Pukatzki S: The Vibrio cholerae type VI secretion system displays antimicrobial properties. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010,107(45):19520–19524.PubMedCrossRef

22. Miller VL, Taylor RK, Mekalanos JJ: Cholera toxin transcriptional activator toxR is a transmembrane DNA binding protein. Cell 1987,48(2):271–279.PubMedCrossRef 23. Taylor RK, Miller VL, Furlong DB, Mekalanos JJ: Use of phoA gene fusions to identify a pilus colonization factor coordinately regulated with cholera toxin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987,84(9):2833–2837.PubMedCrossRef 24. Ma AT, Mekalanos FG-4592 in vivo JJ: In vivo actin cross-linking induced by Vibrio cholerae type VI secretion system is associated Vorinostat datasheet with intestinal inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010,107(9):4365–4370.PubMedCrossRef 25. Zheng J, Shin OS, Cameron DE, Mekalanos JJ: Quorum sensing and a global regulator TsrA control

expression of type VI secretion and virulence in Vibrio cholerae . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010,107(49):21128–21133.PubMedCrossRef 26. Pukatzki S, Ma AT, Revel AT, Sturtevant D, Mekalanos JJ: Type VI secretion system translocates a phage tail spike-like protein into target cells where it cross-links actin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007,104(39):15508–15513.PubMedCrossRef 27. Ma AT, McAuley S, Pukatzki S, Mekalanos JJ: Translocation of a Vibrio cholerae type VI secretion effector requires bacterial endocytosis by host cells. Cell Host Microbe PRKACG 2009,5(3):234–243.PubMedCrossRef 28. Cascales E: The type VI secretion toolkit.

EMBO Rep 2008,9(8):735–741.PubMedCrossRef 29. Filloux A, Hachani A, Bleves S: The bacterial type VI secretion machine: yet another player for protein transport across membranes. Microbiology 2008,154(Pt 6):1570–1583.PubMedCrossRef 30. Horton RM, Pease LR: Recombination and mutagenesis of DNA sequences using PCR. In Directed Mutagenesis: a Practical approach. Edited by: McPherson M. New York: Oxford University Press; 1991:217–247. 31. Fürste JP, Pansegrau W, Frank R, Blocker H, Scholz P, Bagdasarian M, Lanka E: Molecular cloning of the plasmid RP4 primase region in a multi-host-range tacP expression vector. Gene 1986,48(1):119–131.PubMedCrossRef 32. Vallet-Gely I, Donovan KE, Fang R, Joung JK, Dove SL: Repression of phase-variable cup gene expression by H-NS-like proteins in Pseudomonas aeruginosa . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005,102(31):11082–11087.PubMedCrossRef 33. Francis MS, Aili M, Wiklund ML, Wolf-Watz H: A study of the YopD-lcrH interaction from Yersinia pseudotuberculosis reveals a role for hydrophobic residues within the amphipathic domain of YopD. Mol Microbiol 2000,38(1):85–102.PubMedCrossRef 34.

Chem Commun 2007, 5004–5006. 53. Narain R, Gonzales M, Hoffman AS, Stayton PS, Krishnan KM: Synthesis of monodisperse biotinylated p(NIPAAm)-coated learn more iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles and their bioconjugation to streptavidin. Langmuir 2007, 23:6299–6304.CrossRef 54. Gonzales M, Krishnan KM: Phase transfer of highly monodisperse iron oxide nanocrystals with Pluronic F127 for biomedical applications. J Magn Magn Mater 2007, 311:59–62.CrossRef

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by nio nanoparticles in vivo and in vitro. J Occup Health 2011, 53:64–74.CrossRef 60. Zhang Y, Chen Y, Westerhoff P, Hristovski K, Crittenden JC: Stability of commercial metal oxide nanoparticles in water. Water Res 2008, 42:2204–2212.CrossRef 61. King S, Hyunh K, Tannenbaum R: Rucaparib supplier Kinetics of nucleation, growth, and stabilization of cobalt oxide nanoclusters. J Phys Chem B 2003, 107:12097–12104.CrossRef 62. Baldi G, Bonacchi D, Franchini MC, Gentili D, Lorenzi G, Ricci A, Ravagli C: Synthesis and coating of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles: a first step toward the obtainment of new magnetic nanocarriers. Langmuir 2007, 23:4026–4028.CrossRef 63. Min GK, Bevan MA, Prieve DC, Patterson GD: Light scattering characterization of polystyrene latex with and without adsorbed polymer. Colloids Surf A 2002, 202:9–21.CrossRef 64. Koppel DE: Analysis of macromolecular polydispersity in intensity correlation spectroscopy: the method of cumulants. J Chem Phys 1972, 57:4814–4820.CrossRef 65. Lim JK, Majetich SA, Tilton RD: Stabilization of superparamagnetic iron oxide-gold shell nanoparticles in high ionic strength media. Langmuir 2009, 25:13384–13393.CrossRef 66. Zhang L, He R, Gu HC: Oleic acid coating on the monodisperse magnetite nanoparticles. Appl Surf Sci 2006, 253:2611–2617.CrossRef 67. Wang Z, Wen XD, Hoffmann R, Son JS, Li R, Fang CC, Smilgies DM, Hyeon TH: Reconstructing a solid-solid phase transformation pathway in CdSe nanosheets with associated soft ligands.

Last but not least, the reliability of the diagnostic assay was proven on a set of relevant related pathogens and during an acute crayfish-plague outbreak in the small, noble crayfish (Astacus astacus) population inhabiting the lake “”Gleinkersee”" located at an altitude of about 800 meters above sea level at the foothills of the Austrian Alps. In addition to qPCR/MCA typing (not shown), the presence of the pathogen A. astaci was independently confirmed by ITS-sequence analysis and testing see more for constitutive

chitinase activity (A. astaci-strain GKS07 in Additional file 1). Finally, the A. astaci strain GKS07 was isolated on PG-1 agar from an infected noble crayfish. Numerous crayfish individuals were found to be affected but were

still alive during the outbreak of late March 2007. At that time the ice of the lake Gleinkersee was melting and the physiological selleck chemical activities of both pathogen and victim would have been expected to be at a minimum. These circumstances strongly indicated the acuteness of the outbreak. The suspicion of a deliberate introduction of the pathogen could not be confirmed by an inquiry led by the local criminal investigation department. Fish stocking performed in autumn 2006 may be the most likely source of disease transmission. Sensitive quantitative detection of the crayfish-plague pathogen is currently of increasing importance for screening natural non-native crayfish populations or for certifying a pathogen-free Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) status of hatchery fish before introduction into natural habitats or aquaculture facilities. Samples of fish transport water including sediments can be filtered

via membrane filters [59] and subsequently screened by TaqMan qPCR (see Results and Additional file 8). This circumvents pathogen transmission via transport water, fish faeces, mucus and scales. Conclusion The identification of two new chitinase genes showing specific patterns of constitutive temporal expression in the absence of substrate has facilitated the development of a discriminative, robust and reliable method for qualitative and quantitative detection for A. astaci. Methods Biological material Isolates of Oomycetes and related fungi used to validate the molecular assays were either obtained from The Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS) Fungal Biodiversity Centre (Utrecht, The Netherlands), the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (DSMZ) (Braunschweig, Germany), the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) or cultured from lesioned tissue by standard methods [60, 61]. The A. astaci-types 1 to 4 were purchased from Lage Cerenius (Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden). Javier Diéguez-Uribeondo (Real Jardín Botánico CSIC, Madrid, Spain) provided the A. frigidophilus isolate SAP472 [29]. A DNA aliquot of A. frigidophilus NJM 9665 [6, 62] and A. invadans WIC [6] was obtained from Mark W.

Typhimurium remains an important concern to the poultry industry [8] causing a systemic infection in newly hatched chicks, often resulting in death [9]. In

older birds infection by Typhimurium leads to an asymptomatic carriage State with colonization of the digestive tract and continuous shedding [10, 11]. These healthy carrier birds constitute a risk of contamination Selonsertib molecular weight of newly hatched chickens, as well as the food chain leading to both important economic losses and potential harm to human consumers. The pathogenesis of Salmonella has been extensively studied in the mouse [12]. In susceptible mice, Salmonella causes an acute systemic disease with limited intestinal manifestations [13]. Recently, a model of Salmonella enterocolitis has been developed

in streptomycin-treated mice [14]. Studies using these mice and other animal models of Salmonella diseases have yielded substantial data about the molecular players involved at different levels. The Salmonella pathogeniCity islands (SPIs) 1 and 2 are two major virulence determinants of S. enterica. They encode type III secretion systems (T3SS) that form syringe-like organelles on the surface of gram-negative bacteria and enable the injection of effector proteins Staurosporine ic50 directly into the cytosol of eukaryotic cells [15, 16]. These effectors ultimately manipulate the cellular functions of the infected host and facilitate the progression of the infection. SPI1 and SPI2 play several roles in different organs within the host. SPI1 primarily promotes the invasion of non-phagocytic intestinal epithelial cells and the initiation of the inflammatory responses in the intestines [17, 18]. It is also involved in the survival and persistence of Salmonella in the systemic compartment of the host [19–21]. The first characterized role of

SPI2 was its PIK-5 ability to promote Salmonella survival and multiplication in phagocytic cells that constitute the main reservoirs for dissemination of the bacteria into systemic organs [16]. SPI2 also plays an important role in the intestinal phase of Salmonella infection in mice [17, 22, 23]. The regulation of SPI1 and SPI2 gene expression involves numerous transcriptional regulators located both inside and outside these pathogeniCity islands. The regulation of SPI1 is particularly complex. SPI1 encodes for the five regulators HilA, HilC, HilD, InvF, and SprB (Figure 1). The first four of which are involved in regulatory pathways that lead to the activation of SPI1 genes and of genes encoding T3SS effectors located outside SPI1. In contrast to SPI1 the regulation of SPI2 genes is simpler with the SsrAB two-component system being the only transcriptional regulator encoded within SPI2 that activates the expression of SPI2 genes and of genes encoding T3SS effectors located outside SPI2.

Salvaging is commonly used to save at least part of the wood and reduce the probability of the occurrence of other disturbances (Lindenmayer Selleck MCC950 et al. 2008). Both legislation and official forest management rules in many countries support salvaging. Unfortunately, the ecological effect of this treatment is still insufficiently explored, especially in the case of less studied groups of organisms (Økland 1994; Grove 2002; Żmihorski and Durska 2011). Moreover, the picture obtained

from scant research in this area is unclear and depends on a particular taxonomic group, study area etc. As a consequence, it is very difficult to propose a set of appropriate management rules concerning disturbed areas in the context of biodiversity conservation in the forest ecosystem. Nevertheless, this issue needs urgent research as the frequency of disturbances is expected to increase in the future selleck chemical (Schelhaas et al. 2003). The differences between clear-cutting and salvage-logging are obvious. Clearcutting is associated with intact forest areas; salvaging with disturbed stands. Despite the obvious differences one may expect that the effect of salvage logging is to some extent similar to the effect of clearcutting because both types of harvesting lead to a considerable reduction of the number

of standing trees, a reduction of the amount of dead wood and the creation of open or partially open areas in the forest. Moreover, seedlings of trees are either planted or occur naturally in both clear-cut and salvage-logged areas. The new habitats created after such anthropogenic disturbances are very similar to those created after natural disturbances: both are short-lived and remain suitable for open-area species for several years (Southwood 1962; Travis and Dytham 1999). My studies on Phoridae inhabiting areas after disturbances shows that the disturbed areas are remarkably diverse and species

rich as to this group of insects. Many of these are a major component of the pioneer faunas recolonizing habitats devastated by episodes such as clearcutting, windstorms or forest fires (Durska 1996, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2009; Durska et al. 2010; PD184352 (CI-1040) Żmihorski and Durska 2011). The aim of my study was to evaluate the similarities of the scuttle fly communities colonizing forest habitats after anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Scuttle flies, due to their highly diversified life cycles and environmental requirements, as well as relatively high number of species, are considered to be good indicators of habitat quality (Disney 1983a; Disney 1994; Disney and Durska 1998, 2008, 2011). Methods Study area The study is based on material collected in four large forest complexes in northern Poland (Fig. 1): The Białowieża Primeval Forest (BPF) (52o30′–52o50′ N, 23o40′–24o00′ E), the Tuchola Forest (TF) (53o30′–53o50′ N, 18o15′–18o40′ E), the Biała Forest (BF) (52o30′–53o00′ N, 20o40′–21o30′ E) and the Pisz Forest (PF).