However, absolute reductions in disease rates can be difficult to compare across trials, since, in addition to efficacy, they are Roxadustat price dependent on attack rates, which can vary depending upon the sexual activity (of the individual as well as their

partner), pre-existing immunity and other variables of the cohorts. It is important to note that for prophylactic HPV vaccine trials, neither efficacy nor rate reduction is an absolute measure of a vaccine’s performance. Rather, they are time dependent variables. The time dependency is more pronounced in ITT than ATP analyses and for high-grade disease than low-grade disease or infection endpoints. The phenomenon is best illustrated in time-to-event curves. Fig. 1 shows the time-to-event curves for HPV6/11/16/18-related CIN3/AIS in Gardasil® and placebo vaccinated young women in an selleck inhibitor ITT cohort [21]. No reduction in incidence disease was seen in the first year of the trial, whereas steadily increasing disease reduction was observed thereafter, up to 47% after 3.5

years. The lack of significant efficacy or rate reduction during the initial months can be explained by the fact that it normally takes many months for neoplasia, especially CIN3, to develop from incident infection [22]. It follows that most early CIN3 cases will result from prevalent, not incident infection. Because the subjects were randomized, the percent of vaccine and placebo subjects with prevalent infection should be approximately equal. It is only after a substantial number of disease cases have developed from incident infection that the preferential prevention of incident infection in the vaccinated subjects can lead to a significant divergence of the two curves. Similar trends were seen in the Cervarix® efficacy trials [23]. This phenomenon makes it difficult to compare vaccine performance across trials with different attack rates and length of follow-up, apart from methodological differences in colposcopy referral, DNA detection

and attribution of causal HPV for cervical lesions. If the follow-up of the trials were extended past 4 years, the expectation is that cumulative efficacy/rate reduction would continue to increase, providing the vaccines continued to protect from incident infection. However, in many countries, the rate of divergence of the curves would likely be reduced in later years as the cohorts move beyond found their peak years of HPV acquisition. The time dependency effect is less pronounced for ATP analyses since subjects in whom prevalent infection or disease is detected are excluded. However, nascent prevalent infections that are undetected at baseline and later emerge can lead to a more modest increase in efficacy with time in ATP analyses as well. In the end of study analyses of the pivotal phase III efficacy trials in young women, prophylactic efficacy against vaccine type-associated primary and secondary endpoints was uniformly high in ATP and ITT-naïve cohorts (Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6).