ER stress is a well-documented phenomenon in eukaryotic cells exposed to toxic chemicals, nutritional deprivation, and pathological agents (Fig. 1A). These varied insults all interfere with the normal

folding and processing of newly synthesized proteins in the ER and elicit a coordinated set of responses in affected cells known collectively as the unfolded protein response (UPR).2 Key aspects of the UPR include mechanisms for slowing the synthesis of new proteins in the ER, increased production of protein folding chaperones, activation of pathways for degrading misfolded Ixazomib ic50 proteins, and activation of self-destruct apoptotic pathways in severely damaged cells. Other arms of the UPR more directly address the cause(s) of ER stress, such as nuclear factor erythroid-2–related (Nrf2)-dependent induction of antioxidant enzymes.3 Together these responses maintain ER quality control and help the organism adapt to (and recover from) the stressful conditions that initiated the UPR. The UPR is increasingly postulated as a key homeostatic mechanism in hepatocytes that is capable of influencing the progression of chronic liver disease. It is likely highly relevant in hepatocytes given the high protein flux through the ER and the high rate at which reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated, even in healthy AZD9668 chemical structure cells. ROS and other sources of ER stress are increased in

many chronic liver diseases, including hepatocellular carcinoma,4 viral hepatitis,5, 6 alcoholic liver disease,7 hereditary hemochromatosis,8 and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).9, 10 Increased ER stress in liver disease is due partly 上海皓元 to the effects of cytokines such as interleukin-6 secreted by the innate immune system.11 Interleukin-6 triggers unique facets of the UPR in hepatocytes, including activation of the liver-specific transcription

factor cyclic AMP–responsive element binding protein H (CREBH) and induction of an acute phase response.11 Thus the UPR may be considered part of the liver’s immune-mediated antimicrobial defense system. Hepcidin, an antimicrobial peptide that regulates iron homeostasis, is emerging as an important systemic immune response mediator.12 Inflammation and elevated iron stores are the two major stimuli for hepcidin secretion. Hepcidin acts by binding to ferroportin, an iron exporter enriched on the surface of cells active in iron transport, especially gut epithelial cells (enterocytes) and reticuloendothelial cells such as Kupffer cells, resulting in the internalization and degradation of ferroportin,13 and reduction of cellular iron export. Two recent articles have now linked the hepatocyte UPR with hepcidin gene regulation. Oliveira et al. demonstrated that chemically-induced ER stress induced hepcidin gene expression in HepG2 cells via down-regulation of the C/EBPα inhibitor C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP),14 whereas Vecchi et al.