Consideration of these factors when enrolling subjects and controlling for them in analyses will minimize erroneous interpretation of results in the continuing battle against HIV. Time preparing this manuscript was supported by 1K23HD062340-01 (Anderson-PI) and K24 AI066884 (Cu-Uvin-PI). “
“Ectoenzymes are a diverse group of membrane proteins that have their catalytic sites outside the plasma membrane. Many of them are Saracatinib ic50 found on leukocytes and endothelial cells, and they

are multifunctional in nature. Collectively, different ectoenzymes can modulate each step of leukocyte–endothelial contacts, as well as subsequent cell migration in tissues. Here, we review how ectoenzymes belonging to selleck products the oxidase, NAD-metabolizing enzyme, nucleotidase and peptidase/protease families regulate and fine-tune leukocyte trafficking, and how ectoenzymes have been targeted both in preclinical and clinical trials. Leukocyte traffic is governed by the canonical multistep extravasation cascade 1. Selectins, chemokines and integrins, and their counter-receptors, have firmly established roles in controlling

rolling, activation, firm adhesion and transmigration of different types of leukocytes within the blood vessels (Fig. 1). However, each step of the cascade is modified by various other molecules under physiologic and pathologic conditions. Ectoenzymes are a unique class of cell-surface-expressed enzymes 2. Since their catalytic domains face outside the cell membrane, they are fundamentally different from both the multitude of intracellular signaling molecules and the cell-surface-expressed enzymes with cytoplasmic catalytic domains (e.g. G-proteins (receptor) kinases, phosphatases and down-stream signaling molecules), which are also critical in leukocyte migration. Apart from the extracellular catalytic

activity that is common to all, ectoenzymes are a diverse class of molecules that are involved in very different types of enzymatic reactions also (Fig. 2). However, a common theme in ectoenzymatic regulation of leukocyte traffic is that often both the substrate(s) and the end-product(s) can modulate leukocyte migration 3. Here, we will mainly focus on selective examples of ectoenzymes from different classes, including CD26, CD38, CD39, CD73, CD156b, CD156c, CD157, CD203 and the primary amine oxidases, which are the best characterized in terms of leukocyte trafficking. We will emphasize the models based on gene-deficient mice and the potential applicability of ectoenzymes in alleviating inappropriate inflammation. We will focus on the general concepts and advances that have been published since our last comprehensive review on this topic in 2005 3.