However, a clinical study revealed that leptin administration achieved only modest body weight and fat loss in obese patients with hyperleptinemia, advocating the requirement of a leptin sensitizer for enhancing the efficacy of leptin therapy.4, 33, 37 Our data suggest that retinoids might act as a promising leptin sensitizer by restoring hepatic LEPR expression. Future study should examine the effect of retinoids in db/db mice, which genetically lack only LEPRb but express other LEPR isoforms that function in peripheral tissues

as well as the liver. However, the relatively highly phosphorylated STAT3 levels in the HFHFr and ATRA + HFHFr groups despite reduced JAK2 phosphorylation KU-57788 mouse and LEPR levels suggest additional mechanisms underlying leptin resistance. Since no difference in SOCS3 expression was observed in the present study, other negative regulators might be involved in this discordance.

Microarray data demonstrated that the expression of SH2 domain-containing mTOR inhibitor protein tyrosine phosphatase-2, the hepatocyte-specific deletion of which leads to enhanced and prolonged STAT3 phosphorylation,35 was decreased in the HFHFr and ATRA + HFHFr groups compared with the control group. qPCR also confirmed 1.7- and 2.9-fold down-regulation of SH2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-2 in the HFHFr and ATRA + HFHFr groups, respectively (both P < 0.05, compared to the control). Further investigation is necessary to elucidate additional involvement of negative regulators in hepatic leptin resistance. STAT3 has recently emerged as an important regulator for hepatic gluconeogenesis given its activity to suppress the expression of PPARγ-coactivator 1α, glucose-6-phosphatase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1.13-15 Mice genetically deficient in hepatic STAT3 activation exhibit severe steatosis, hyperinsulinemia, and glucose intolerance when fed a choline-deficient diet.13, 14 In addition to STAT3, the gene encoding IGFBP2 is a target of the leptin signaling pathway in the liver, and plays an important role in leptin's antidiabetic

activity.29 Mice with hepatic RARα deficiency exhibit steatohepatitis associated with reduced expression of IGF1, which reduces blood glucose level by acting as an anabolic and metabolic hormone.24, 25 Studies have proposed click here that IGFBP2 enhances the stability of IGF138; although the expression of IGF1 was not changed in the present study (data not shown), it is still possible that the enhancing effect of IGFBP2 contributes to ATRA action. Interestingly, IGFBP2 administration has been found to mitigate glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia not only in ob/ob mice, but also in leptin-resistant mice.29 Taken together, these present and previous findings suggest that either or both STAT3 and IGFBP2 may play a role in retinoid action, at least in part. Consumption of high-fructose-containing foods is reported to be a risk factor for the development of NAFLD.